Copal refers to the tree resin of several tropical species, most notably of the genus Protium, harvested across Central and South America as well as parts of Africa and Asia. It forms as a sticky secretion where the bark is wounded and hardens in the air into lumps of varying colour and texture — from pale, amber-like gold copal to milky-white or greenish variants, depending on the species and region.

Burned as incense, copal releases a bright, resinous-sweet scent with citrus and faintly woodland notes, noticeably fresher than heavier resins like frankincense. In Mesoamerica it has been used for ceremonial burning since pre-Columbian times — and remains a central part of spiritual practice for many indigenous communities across Central America today.

Labdanum is a sticky, dark brown resin obtained from various species of rockrose (Cistus ladanifer in the western Mediterranean, Cistus creticus in the east). During the hot summer months, the resinous leaves of these shrubs exude a fragrant substance that was traditionally combed out of the coats of grazing goats and sheep — one of the more unusual harvesting methods in the history of incense.

Burned, labdanum develops a rich, complex scent — warm, amber-like, faintly animalic, and deep, with leathery and musky undertones. Because of its resemblance to ambergris, which is rarely used today for conservation reasons, labdanum remains one of the most important ingredients in perfumery for creating warm, amber-toned accords.